来源丨https://github.com/jackzhenguo/python-small-examples
一、 数字
1 求绝对值
绝对值或复数的模
<span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">abs</span>(<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">-6</span>)<br /><p><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Out</span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">6</span></p><p><span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);"><br /></span></p>2 进制转化
十进制转换为二进制：
<span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">2</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">bin</span>(<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">10</span>)<br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Out</span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">2</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'0b1010'</span>十进制转换为八进制：
<span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">3</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">oct</span>(<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">9</span>)<br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Out</span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">3</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'0o11'</span>十进制转换为十六进制：
<span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">4</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">hex</span>(<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">15</span>)<br /><p><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Out</span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">4</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'0xf'</span></p><p><span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);"><br /></span></p>3 整数和ASCII互转
十进制整数对应的ASCII字符
<span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">chr</span>(<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">65</span>)<br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Out</span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'A'</span>查看某个ASCII字符对应的十进制数
<span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">ord</span>(<span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'A'</span>)<br /><p><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Out</span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">65</span></p><p><span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);"><br /></span></p>4 元素都为真检查
所有元素都为真，返回 True，否则为False
<span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">5</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">all</span>([<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">0</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">3</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">6</span>])<br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Out</span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">5</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">False</span><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">6</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">all</span>([<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">2</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">3</span>])<br /><p><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Out</span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">6</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">True</span></p><p><span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);"><br /></span></p>5 元素至少一个为真检查
至少有一个元素为真返回True，否则False
<span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">7</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">any</span>([<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">0</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">0</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">0</span>,[]])<br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Out</span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">7</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">False</span><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">8</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">any</span>([<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">0</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">0</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>])<br /><p><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Out</span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">8</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">True</span></p><p><span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);"><br /></span></p>6 判断是真是假
测试一个对象是True, 还是False.
<span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">9</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">bool</span>([<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">0</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">0</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">0</span>])<br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Out</span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">9</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">True</span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">10</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">bool</span>([])<br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Out</span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">10</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">False</span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">11</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">bool</span>([<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">0</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>])<br /><p><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Out</span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">11</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">True</span></p><p><span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);"><br /></span></p>7 创建复数
创建一个复数
<span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">complex</span>(<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">2</span>)<br /><p><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Out</span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>]: (<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1+2j</span>)</p><p><br /></p>8 取商和余数
分别取商和余数
<span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">divmod</span>(<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">10</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">3</span>)<br /><p><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Out</span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>]: (<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">3</span>, <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>)</p><p><br /></p>9 转为浮点类型
将一个整数或数值型字符串转换为浮点数
<span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">float</span>(<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">3</span>)<br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Out</span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">3.0</span>如果不能转化为浮点数，则会报ValueError:
<span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">2</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">float</span>(<span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'a'</span>)<br /><p><span style="color: rgb(106, 115, 125);"># ValueError: could not convert string to float: 'a'</span></p><p><span style="color: rgb(106, 115, 125);"><br /></span></p>10 转为整型
int(x, base =10) , x可能为字符串或数值，将x 转换为一个普通整数。如果参数是字符串，那么它可能包含符号和小数点。如果超出了普通整数的表示范围，一个长整数被返回。
<span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">int</span>(<span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'12'</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">16</span>)<br /><p><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Out</span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">18</span></p><p><span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);"><br /></span></p>11 次幂
base为底的exp次幂，如果mod给出，取余
<span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">pow</span>(<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">3</span>, <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">2</span>, <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">4</span>)<br /><p><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Out</span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span></p><p><span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);"><br /></span></p>12 四舍五入
四舍五入，ndigits代表小数点后保留几位：
<span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">11</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">round</span>(<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">10.0222222</span>, <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">3</span>)<br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Out</span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">11</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">10.022</span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">12</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">round</span>(<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">10.05</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>)<br /><p><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Out</span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">12</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">10.1</span></p><p><span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);"><br /></span></p>13 链式比较
i <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">3</span><br /><span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">print</span>(<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span> <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);"><</span> i <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);"><</span> <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">3</span>) <span style="color: rgb(106, 115, 125);"># False</span><br /><p><span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">print</span>(<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span> <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);"><</span> i <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);"><=</span> <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">3</span>) <span style="color: rgb(106, 115, 125);"># True</span></p><p><span style="color: rgb(106, 115, 125);"><br /></span></p>二、 字符串
14 字符串转字节
字符串转换为字节类型
<span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">12</span>]: s <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">"apple"</span> <br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">13</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">bytes</span>(s,encoding<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span><span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'utf-8'</span>)<br /><p><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Out</span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">13</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">b'apple'</span></p><p><span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);"><br /></span></p>15 任意对象转为字符串
<span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">14</span>]: i <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">100</span> <br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">15</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">str</span>(i)<br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Out</span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">15</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'100'</span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">16</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">str</span>([])<br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Out</span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">16</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'[]'</span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">17</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">str</span>(<span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">tuple</span>())<br /><p><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Out</span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">17</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'()'</span></p><p><span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);"><br /></span></p>16 执行字符串表示的代码
将字符串编译成python能识别或可执行的代码，也可以将文字读成字符串再编译。
<span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>]: s <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">"print('helloworld')"</span><br /> <br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">2</span>]: r <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">compile</span>(s,<span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">"<string>"</span>, <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">"exec"</span>)<br /> <br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">3</span>]: r<br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Out</span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">3</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);"><</span>code object <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);"><</span>module<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">></span> at <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">0x0000000005DE75D0</span>, file <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">"<string>"</span>, line <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1></span><br /> <br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">4</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">exec</span>(r)<br /><p>helloworld</p><p><br /></p>17 计算表达式
将字符串str 当成有效的表达式来求值并返回计算结果取出字符串中内容
<span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>]: s <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">"1 + 3 +5"</span><br /> ...: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">eval</span>(s)<br /> ...:<br /><p><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Out</span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">9</span></p><p><span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);"><br /></span></p>18 字符串格式化
格式化输出字符串，format(value, format_spec)实质上是调用了value的__format__(format_spec)方法。
| 3.1415926 | {:.2f} | 3.14 | 保留小数点后两位 |
|---|---|---|---|
| 3.1415926 | {:+.2f} | +3.14 | 带符号保留小数点后两位 |
| -1 | {:+.2f} | -1.00 | 带符号保留小数点后两位 |
| 2.71828 | {:.0f} | 3 | 不带小数 |
| 5 | {:0>2d} | 05 | 数字补零 (填充左边, 宽度为2) |
| 5 | {:x<4d} | 5xxx | 数字补x (填充右边, 宽度为4) |
| 10 | {:x<4d} | 10xx | 数字补x (填充右边, 宽度为4) |
| 1000000 | {:,} | 1,000,000 | 以逗号分隔的数字格式 |
| 0.25 | {:.2%} | 25.00% | 百分比格式 |
| 1000000000 | {:.2e} | 1.00e+09 | 指数记法 |
| 18 | {:>10d} | ' 18' | 右对齐 (默认, 宽度为10) |
| 18 | {:<10d} | '18 ' | 左对齐 (宽度为10) |
| 18 | {:^10d} | ' 18 ' | 中间对齐 (宽度为10) |
三、 函数
19 拿来就用的排序函数
排序：
<span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>]: a <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">4</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">2</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">3</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>]<br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">2</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">sorted</span>(a,reverse<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=True</span>)<br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Out</span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">2</span>]: [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">4</span>, <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">3</span>, <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">2</span>, <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>, <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>]<br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">3</span>]: a <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> [{<span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'name'</span>:<span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'xiaoming'</span>,<span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'age'</span>:<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">18</span>,<span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'gender'</span>:<span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'male'</span>},{<span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'name'</span>:<span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'</span><br /><span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);"> ...: xiaohong'</span>,<span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'age'</span>:<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">20</span>,<span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'gender'</span>:<span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'female'</span>}]<br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">4</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">sorted</span>(a,key<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span><span style="color: rgb(215, 58, 73);">lambda</span> x: x[<span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'age'</span>],reverse<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=False</span>)<br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Out</span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">4</span>]:<br />[{<span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'name'</span>: <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'xiaoming'</span>, <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'age'</span>: <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">18</span>, <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'gender'</span>: <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'male'</span>},<br /><p>{<span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'name'</span>: <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'xiaohong'</span>, <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'age'</span>: <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">20</span>, <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'gender'</span>: <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'female'</span>}]</p><p><br /></p>20 求和函数
求和：
<span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">181</span>]: a <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">4</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">2</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">3</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>]<br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">182</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">sum</span>(a)<br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Out</span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">182</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">11</span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">185</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">sum</span>(a,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">10</span>) <span style="color: rgb(106, 115, 125);">#求和的初始值为10</span><br /><p><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Out</span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">185</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">21</span></p><p><span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);"><br /></span></p>21 nonlocal用于内嵌函数中
关键词nonlocal常用于函数嵌套中，声明变量i为非局部变量；如果不声明，i+=1表明i为函数wrapper内的局部变量，因为在i+=1引用(reference)时,i未被声明，所以会报unreferenced variable的错误。
<span style="color: rgb(215, 58, 73);">def</span> <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">excepter</span>(f):<br /> i <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">0</span><br /> t1 <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> time.<span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">time</span>()<br /> <span style="color: rgb(215, 58, 73);">def</span> <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">wrapper</span>():<br /> <span style="color: rgb(215, 58, 73);">try</span>:<br /> <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">f</span>()<br /> <span style="color: rgb(215, 58, 73);">except</span> <span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Exception</span> <span style="color: rgb(215, 58, 73);">as</span> e:<br /> <span style="color: rgb(215, 58, 73);">nonlocal</span> i<br /> i <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">+=</span> <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span><br /> <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">print</span>(<span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">f'<span style="color: rgb(36, 41, 46);">{e.args[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">0</span>]}</span>: <span style="color: rgb(36, 41, 46);">{i}</span>'</span>)<br /> t2 <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> time.<span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">time</span>()<br /> <span style="color: rgb(215, 58, 73);">if</span> i <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">==</span> n:<br /> <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">print</span>(<span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">f'spending time:<span style="color: rgb(36, 41, 46);">{<span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">round</span>(t2<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">-</span>t1,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">2</span>)}</span>'</span>)<br /><p><span style="color: rgb(215, 58, 73);">return</span> wrapper</p><p><br /></p>22 global 声明全局变量
先回答为什么要有global，一个变量被多个函数引用，想让全局变量被所有函数共享。有的伙伴可能会想这还不简单，这样写：
i <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">5</span><br /><span style="color: rgb(215, 58, 73);">def</span> <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">f</span>():<br /> <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">print</span>(i)<br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(215, 58, 73);">def</span> <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">g</span>():<br /> <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">print</span>(i)<br /> <span style="color: rgb(215, 58, 73);">pass</span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">f</span>()<br /><span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">g</span>()f和g两个函数都能共享变量i，程序没有报错，所以他们依然不明白为什么要用global.
但是，如果我想要有个函数对i递增，这样：
<span style="color: rgb(215, 58, 73);">def</span> <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">h</span>():<br /> i <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">+=</span> <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">h</span>()此时执行程序，bang, 出错了！抛出异常：UnboundLocalError，原来编译器在解释i+=1时会把i解析为函数h()内的局部变量，很显然在此函数内，编译器找不到对变量i的定义，所以会报错。
global就是为解决此问题而被提出，在函数h内，显式地告诉编译器i为全局变量，然后编译器会在函数外面寻找i的定义，执行完i+=1后，i还为全局变量，值加1：
i <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">0</span><br /><span style="color: rgb(215, 58, 73);">def</span> <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">h</span>():<br /> <span style="color: rgb(215, 58, 73);">global</span> i<br /> i <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">+=</span> <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">h</span>()<br /><p><span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">print</span>(i)</p><p><br /></p>23 交换两元素
<span style="color: rgb(215, 58, 73);">def</span> <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">swap</span>(a, b):<br /> <span style="color: rgb(215, 58, 73);">return</span> b, a<br /><br /><br /><p><span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">print</span>(<span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">swap</span>(<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>, <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">0</span>)) <span style="color: rgb(106, 115, 125);"># (0,1)</span></p><p><span style="color: rgb(106, 115, 125);"><br /></span></p>24 操作函数对象
<span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">31</span>]: def <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">f</span>():<br /> ...: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">print</span>(<span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'i'm f'</span>)<br /> ...:<br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">32</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(215, 58, 73);">def</span> <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">g</span>():<br /> ...: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">print</span>(<span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'i'm g'</span>)<br /> ...:<br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">33</span>]: [f,g][<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>]()<br />i'm g创建函数对象的list，根据想要调用的index，方便统一调用。
25 生成逆序序列
<span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">list</span>(<span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">range</span>(<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">10</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">-1</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">-1</span>)) <span style="color: rgb(106, 115, 125);"># [10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0]</span>第三个参数为负时，表示从第一个参数开始递减，终止到第二个参数(不包括此边界)
26 函数的五类参数使用例子
python五类参数：位置参数，关键字参数，默认参数，可变位置或关键字参数的使用。
<span style="color: rgb(215, 58, 73);">def</span> <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">f</span>(a,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">*</span>b,c<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=10</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">**</span>d):<br /> <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">print</span>(<span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">f'a:<span style="color: rgb(36, 41, 46);">{a}</span>,b:<span style="color: rgb(36, 41, 46);">{b}</span>,c:<span style="color: rgb(36, 41, 46);">{c}</span>,d:<span style="color: rgb(36, 41, 46);">{d}</span>'</span>)默认参数c不能位于可变关键字参数d后.
调用f:
<span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">10</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">f</span>(<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">2</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">5</span>,width<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=10</span>,height<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=20</span>)<br />a:<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>,b:(<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">2</span>, <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">5</span>),c:<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">10</span>,d:{<span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'width'</span>: <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">10</span>, <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'height'</span>: <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">20</span>}可变位置参数b实参后被解析为元组(2,5);而c取得默认值10; d被解析为字典.
再次调用f:
<span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">11</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">f</span>(a<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=1</span>,c<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=12</span>)<br />a:<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>,b:(),c:<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">12</span>,d:{}a=1传入时a就是关键字参数，b,d都未传值，c被传入12，而非默认值。
注意观察参数a, 既可以f(1),也可以f(a=1) 其可读性比第一种更好，建议使用f(a=1)。如果要强制使用f(a=1)，需要在前面添加一个星号:
<span style="color: rgb(215, 58, 73);">def</span> <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">f</span>(*,a,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">**</span>b):<br /> <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">print</span>(<span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">f'a:<span style="color: rgb(36, 41, 46);">{a}</span>,b:<span style="color: rgb(36, 41, 46);">{b}</span>'</span>)此时f(1)调用，将会报错：TypeError: f() takes 0 positional arguments but 1 was given
只能f(a=1)才能OK.
说明前面的*发挥作用，它变为只能传入关键字参数，那么如何查看这个参数的类型呢？借助python的inspect模块：
<span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">22</span>]: for name,val <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">in</span> <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">signature</span>(f).parameters.<span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">items</span>():<br /> ...: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">print</span>(name,val.kind)<br /> ...:<br />a <span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">KEYWORD_ONLY</span><br />b <span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">VAR_KEYWORD</span>可看到参数a的类型为KEYWORD_ONLY，也就是仅仅为关键字参数。
但是，如果f定义为：
<span style="color: rgb(215, 58, 73);">def</span> <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">f</span>(a,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">*</span>b):<br /> <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">print</span>(<span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">f'a:<span style="color: rgb(36, 41, 46);">{a}</span>,b:<span style="color: rgb(36, 41, 46);">{b}</span>'</span>)查看参数类型：
<span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">24</span>]: for name,val <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">in</span> <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">signature</span>(f).parameters.<span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">items</span>():<br /> ...: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">print</span>(name,val.kind)<br /> ...:<br />a <span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">POSITIONAL_OR_KEYWORD</span><br />b <span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">VAR_POSITIONAL</span>可以看到参数a既可以是位置参数也可是关键字参数。
27 使用slice对象
生成关于蛋糕的序列cake1：
<span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>]: cake1 <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">list</span>(<span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">range</span>(<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">5</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">0</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">-1</span>))<br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">2</span>]: b <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> cake1[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>:<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">10</span>:<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">2</span>]<br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">3</span>]: b<br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Out</span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">3</span>]: [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">4</span>, <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">2</span>]<br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">4</span>]: cake1<br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Out</span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">4</span>]: [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">5</span>, <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">4</span>, <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">3</span>, <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">2</span>, <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>]再生成一个序列：
<span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">5</span>]: from random <span style="color: rgb(215, 58, 73);">import</span> randint<br /> ...: cake2 <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> [<span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">randint</span>(<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">100</span>) <span style="color: rgb(215, 58, 73);">for</span> _ <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">in</span> <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">range</span>(<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">100</span>)]<br /> ...: <span style="color: rgb(106, 115, 125);"># 同样以间隔为2切前10个元素，得到切片d</span><br /> ...: d <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> cake2[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>:<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">10</span>:<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">2</span>]<br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">6</span>]: d<br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Out</span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">6</span>]: [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">75</span>, <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">33</span>, <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">63</span>, <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">93</span>, <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">15</span>]你看，我们使用同一种切法，分别切开两个蛋糕cake1,cake2. 后来发现这种切法极为经典，又拿它去切更多的容器对象。
那么，为什么不把这种切法封装为一个对象呢？于是就有了slice对象。
定义slice对象极为简单，如把上面的切法定义成slice对象：
perfect_cake_slice_way <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">slice</span>(<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">10</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">2</span>)<br /><span style="color: rgb(106, 115, 125);">#去切cake1</span><br />cake1_slice <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> cake1[perfect_cake_slice_way]<br />cake2_slice <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> cake2[perfect_cake_slice_way]<br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">11</span>]: cake1_slice<br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Out</span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">11</span>]: [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">4</span>, <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">2</span>]<br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">12</span>]: cake2_slice<br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Out</span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">12</span>]: [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">75</span>, <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">33</span>, <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">63</span>, <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">93</span>, <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">15</span>]与上面的结果一致。
对于逆向序列切片，slice对象一样可行：
a <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">3</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">5</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">7</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">9</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">0</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">3</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">5</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">7</span>]<br />a_ <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> a[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">5</span>:<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>:<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">-1</span>]<br /><br />named_slice <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">slice</span>(<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">5</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">-1</span>)<br />a_slice <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> a[named_slice]<br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">14</span>]: a_<br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Out</span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">14</span>]: [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">0</span>, <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">9</span>, <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">7</span>, <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">5</span>]<br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">15</span>]: a_slice<br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Out</span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">15</span>]: [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">0</span>, <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">9</span>, <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">7</span>, <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">5</span>]频繁使用同一切片的操作可使用slice对象抽出来，复用的同时还能提高代码可读性。
28 lambda 函数的动画演示
有些读者反映，lambda函数不太会用，问我能不能解释一下。
比如，下面求这个 lambda函数：
<span style="color: rgb(215, 58, 73);">def</span> <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">max_len</span>(<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">*</span>lists):<br /> <span style="color: rgb(215, 58, 73);">return</span> <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">max</span>(<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">*</span>lists, key<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span><span style="color: rgb(215, 58, 73);">lambda</span> v: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">len</span>(v))有两点疑惑：
-
参数
v的取值？ -
lambda函数有返回值吗？如果有，返回值是多少？
调用上面函数，求出以下三个最长的列表：
r <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">max_len</span>([<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>, <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">2</span>, <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">3</span>], [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">4</span>, <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">5</span>, <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">6</span>, <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">7</span>], [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">8</span>])<br /><span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">print</span>(<span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">f'更长的列表是<span style="color: rgb(36, 41, 46);">{r}</span>'</span>)程序完整运行过程，动画演示如下：
结论：
-
参数v的可能取值为
*lists，也就是tuple的一个元素。 -
lambda函数返回值，等于lambda v冒号后表达式的返回值。
四、 数据结构
29 转为字典
创建数据字典
<span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">dict</span>()<br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Out</span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>]: {}<br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">2</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">dict</span>(a<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span><span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'a'</span>,b<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span><span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'b'</span>)<br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Out</span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">2</span>]: {<span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'a'</span>: <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'a'</span>, <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'b'</span>: <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'b'</span>}<br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">3</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">dict</span>(<span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">zip</span>([<span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'a'</span>,<span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'b'</span>],[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">2</span>]))<br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Out</span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">3</span>]: {<span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'a'</span>: <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>, <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'b'</span>: <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">2</span>}<br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">4</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">dict</span>([(<span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'a'</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>),(<span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'b'</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">2</span>)])<br /><p><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Out</span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">4</span>]: {<span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'a'</span>: <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>, <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'b'</span>: <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">2</span>}</p><p><br /></p>30 冻结集合
创建一个不可修改的集合。
<span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">frozenset</span>([<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">3</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">2</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">3</span>])<br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Out</span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">frozenset</span>({<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>, <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">2</span>, <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">3</span>})因为不可修改，所以没有像set那样的add和pop方法
31 转为集合类型
返回一个set对象，集合内不允许有重复元素：
<span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">159</span>]: a <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">4</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">2</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">3</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>]<br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">160</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">set</span>(a)<br /><p><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Out</span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">160</span>]: {<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>, <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">2</span>, <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">3</span>, <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">4</span>}</p><p><br /></p>32 转为切片对象
class slice(start, stop[, step])
返回一个表示由 range(start, stop, step) 所指定索引集的 slice对象，它让代码可读性、可维护性变好。
<span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>]: a <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">4</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">2</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">3</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>]<br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">2</span>]: my_slice_meaning <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">slice</span>(<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">0</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">5</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">2</span>)<br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">3</span>]: a[my_slice_meaning]<br /><p><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Out</span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">3</span>]: [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>, <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">2</span>, <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>]</p><p><br /></p>33 转元组
tuple() 将对象转为一个不可变的序列类型
<span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">16</span>]: i_am_list <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">3</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">5</span>]<br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">17</span>]: i_am_tuple <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">tuple</span>(i_am_list)<br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">18</span>]: i_am_tuple<br /><p><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Out</span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">18</span>]: (<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>, <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">3</span>, <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">5</span>)</p>五、 类和对象
34 是否可调用
检查对象是否可被调用
<span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">callable</span>(str)<br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Out</span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">True</span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">2</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">callable</span>(int)<br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Out</span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">2</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">True</span><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">18</span>]: class <span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Student</span>():<br /> ...: <span style="color: rgb(215, 58, 73);">def</span> <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">__init__</span>(self,id,name):<br /> ...: self.id <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> id<br /> ...: self.name <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> name<br /> ...: def <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">__repr__</span>(self):<br /> ...: <span style="color: rgb(215, 58, 73);">return</span> <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'id = '</span><span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">+</span>self.id <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">+</span><span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">', name = '</span><span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">+</span>self.name<br /> ...<br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">19</span>]: xiaoming <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> <span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Student</span>(<span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'001'</span>,<span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'xiaoming'</span>)<br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">20</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">callable</span>(xiaoming)<br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Out</span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">20</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">False</span>如果能调用xiaoming(), 需要重写Student类的__call__方法：
<span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>]: class <span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Student</span>():<br /> ...: <span style="color: rgb(215, 58, 73);">def</span> <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">__init__</span>(self,id,name):<br /> ...: self.id <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> id<br /> ...: self.name <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> name<br /> ...: def <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">__repr__</span>(self):<br /> ...: <span style="color: rgb(215, 58, 73);">return</span> <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'id = '</span><span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">+</span>self.id <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">+</span><span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">', name = '</span><span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">+</span>self.name<br /> ...: def <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">__call__</span>(self):<br /> ...: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">print</span>(<span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'I can be called'</span>)<br /> ...: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">print</span>(<span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">f'my name is <span style="color: rgb(36, 41, 46);">{self.name}</span>'</span>)<br /> ...:<br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">2</span>]: t <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> <span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Student</span>(<span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'001'</span>,<span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'xiaoming'</span>)<br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">3</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">t</span>()<br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">I</span> can be called<br /><p>my name <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">is</span> xiaoming</p><p><br /></p>35 ascii 展示对象
调用对象的 __repr__ 方法，获得该方法的返回值，如下例子返回值为字符串
<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">>>></span> <span style="color: rgb(215, 58, 73);">class</span> <span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Student</span>():<br /> <span style="color: rgb(215, 58, 73);">def</span> <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">__init__</span>(self,id,name):<br /> self.id <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> id<br /> self.name <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> name<br /> <span style="color: rgb(215, 58, 73);">def</span> <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">__repr__</span>(self):<br /> <span style="color: rgb(215, 58, 73);">return</span> <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'id = '</span><span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">+</span>self.id <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">+</span><span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">', name = '</span><span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">+</span>self.name调用：
<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">>>></span> xiaoming <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> <span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Student</span>(id<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span><span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'1'</span>,name<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span><span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'xiaoming'</span>)<br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">>>></span> xiaoming<br />id <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>, name <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> xiaoming<br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">>>></span> <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">ascii</span>(xiaoming)<br /><p><span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'id = 1, name = xiaoming'</span></p><p><span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);"><br /></span></p>36 类方法
classmethod 装饰器对应的函数不需要实例化，不需要 self 参数，但第一个参数需要是表示自身类的 cls 参数，可以来调用类的属性，类的方法，实例化对象等。
<span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>]: class <span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Student</span>():<br /> ...: <span style="color: rgb(215, 58, 73);">def</span> <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">__init__</span>(self,id,name):<br /> ...: self.id <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> id<br /> ...: self.name <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> name<br /> ...: def <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">__repr__</span>(self):<br /> ...: <span style="color: rgb(215, 58, 73);">return</span> <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'id = '</span><span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">+</span>self.id <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">+</span><span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">', name = '</span><span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">+</span>self.name<br /> ...: @classmethod<br /> ...: def <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">f</span>(cls):<br /><p>...: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">print</span>(cls)</p><p><br /></p>37 动态删除属性
删除对象的属性
<span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">delattr</span>(xiaoming,<span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'id'</span>)<br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">2</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">hasattr</span>(xiaoming,<span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'id'</span>)<br /><p><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Out</span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">2</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">False</span></p><p><span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);"><br /></span></p>38 一键查看对象所有方法
不带参数时返回当前范围内的变量、方法和定义的类型列表；带参数时返回参数的属性，方法列表。
<span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">96</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">dir</span>(xiaoming)<br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Out</span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">96</span>]:<br />[<span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'__class__'</span>,<br /> <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'__delattr__'</span>,<br /> <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'__dict__'</span>,<br /> <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'__dir__'</span>,<br /> <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'__doc__'</span>,<br /> <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'__eq__'</span>,<br /> <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'__format__'</span>,<br /> <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'__ge__'</span>,<br /> <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'__getattribute__'</span>,<br /> <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'__gt__'</span>,<br /> <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'__hash__'</span>,<br /> <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'__init__'</span>,<br /> <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'__init_subclass__'</span>,<br /> <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'__le__'</span>,<br /> <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'__lt__'</span>,<br /> <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'__module__'</span>,<br /> <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'__ne__'</span>,<br /> <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'__new__'</span>,<br /> <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'__reduce__'</span>,<br /> <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'__reduce_ex__'</span>,<br /> <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'__repr__'</span>,<br /> <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'__setattr__'</span>,<br /> <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'__sizeof__'</span>,<br /> <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'__str__'</span>,<br /> <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'__subclasshook__'</span>,<br /> <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'__weakref__'</span>,<br /> <br /><p><span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'name'</span>]</p><p><br /></p>39 动态获取对象属性
获取对象的属性
<span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>]: class <span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Student</span>():<br /> ...: <span style="color: rgb(215, 58, 73);">def</span> <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">__init__</span>(self,id,name):<br /> ...: self.id <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> id<br /> ...: self.name <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> name<br /> ...: def <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">__repr__</span>(self):<br /> ...: <span style="color: rgb(215, 58, 73);">return</span> <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'id = '</span><span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">+</span>self.id <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">+</span><span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">', name = '</span><span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">+</span>self.name<br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">2</span>]: xiaoming <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> <span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Student</span>(id<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span><span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'001'</span>,name<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span><span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'xiaoming'</span>)<br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">3</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">getattr</span>(xiaoming,<span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'name'</span>) <span style="color: rgb(106, 115, 125);"># 获取xiaoming这个实例的name属性值</span><br /><p><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Out</span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">3</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'xiaoming'</span></p><p><span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);"><br /></span></p>40 对象是否有这个属性
<span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>]: class <span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Student</span>():<br /> ...: <span style="color: rgb(215, 58, 73);">def</span> <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">__init__</span>(self,id,name):<br /> ...: self.id <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> id<br /> ...: self.name <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> name<br /> ...: def <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">__repr__</span>(self):<br /> ...: <span style="color: rgb(215, 58, 73);">return</span> <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'id = '</span><span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">+</span>self.id <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">+</span><span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">', name = '</span><span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">+</span>self.name<br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">2</span>]: xiaoming <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> <span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Student</span>(id<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span><span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'001'</span>,name<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span><span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'xiaoming'</span>)<br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">3</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">hasattr</span>(xiaoming,<span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'name'</span>)<br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Out</span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">3</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">True</span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">4</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">hasattr</span>(xiaoming,<span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'address'</span>)<br /><p><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Out</span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">4</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">False</span></p><p><span style="color:#e36209;">、</span></p>41 对象门牌号
返回对象的内存地址
<span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">id</span>(xiaoming)<br /><p><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Out</span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">98234208</span></p><p><span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);"><br /></span></p>42 isinstance
判断object是否为类classinfo的实例，是返回true
<span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>]: class <span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Student</span>():<br /> ...: <span style="color: rgb(215, 58, 73);">def</span> <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">__init__</span>(self,id,name):<br /> ...: self.id <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> id<br /> ...: self.name <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> name<br /> ...: def <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">__repr__</span>(self):<br /> ...: <span style="color: rgb(215, 58, 73);">return</span> <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'id = '</span><span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">+</span>self.id <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">+</span><span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">', name = '</span><span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">+</span>self.name<br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">2</span>]: xiaoming <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> <span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Student</span>(id<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span><span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'001'</span>,name<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span><span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'xiaoming'</span>)<br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">3</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">isinstance</span>(xiaoming,<span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Student</span>)<br /><p><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Out</span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">3</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">True</span></p><p><span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);"><br /></span></p>43 父子关系鉴定
<span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>]: class <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">undergraduate</span>(<span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Student</span>):<br /> ...: <span style="color: rgb(215, 58, 73);">def</span> <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">studyClass</span>(self):<br /> ...: pass<br /> ...: def <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">attendActivity</span>(self):<br /> ...: pass<br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">2</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">issubclass</span>(undergraduate,<span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Student</span>)<br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Out</span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">2</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">True</span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">3</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">issubclass</span>(object,<span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Student</span>)<br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Out</span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">3</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">False</span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">4</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">issubclass</span>(<span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Student</span>,object)<br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Out</span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">4</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">True</span>如果class是classinfo元组中某个元素的子类，也会返回True
<span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">issubclass</span>(int,(int,float))<br /><p><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Out</span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">True</span></p><p><span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);"><br /></span></p>44 所有对象之根
object 是所有类的基类
<span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>]: o <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">object</span>()<br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">2</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">type</span>(o)<br /><p><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Out</span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">2</span>]: object</p><p><br /></p>45 创建属性的两种方式
返回 property 属性，典型的用法：
<span style="color: rgb(215, 58, 73);">class</span> <span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">C</span>:<br /> <span style="color: rgb(215, 58, 73);">def</span> <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">__init__</span>(self):<br /> self._x <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">None</span><br /><br /> <span style="color: rgb(215, 58, 73);">def</span> <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">getx</span>(self):<br /> <span style="color: rgb(215, 58, 73);">return</span> self._x<br /><br /> <span style="color: rgb(215, 58, 73);">def</span> <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">setx</span>(self, value):<br /> self._x <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> value<br /><br /> <span style="color: rgb(215, 58, 73);">def</span> <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">delx</span>(self):<br /> <span style="color: rgb(215, 58, 73);">del</span> self._x<br /> <span style="color: rgb(106, 115, 125);"># 使用property类创建 property 属性</span><br /> x <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">property</span>(getx, setx, delx, <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">"I'm the 'x' property."</span>)使用python装饰器，实现与上完全一样的效果代码：
<span style="color: rgb(215, 58, 73);">class</span> <span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">C</span>:<br /> <span style="color: rgb(215, 58, 73);">def</span> <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">__init__</span>(self):<br /> self._x <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">None</span><br /><br /> <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">@property</span><br /> <span style="color: rgb(215, 58, 73);">def</span> <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">x</span>(self):<br /> <span style="color: rgb(215, 58, 73);">return</span> self._x<br /><br /> <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">@x.setter</span><br /> <span style="color: rgb(215, 58, 73);">def</span> <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">x</span>(self, value):<br /> self._x <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> value<br /><br /> <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">@x.deleter</span><br /> <span style="color: rgb(215, 58, 73);">def</span> <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">x</span>(self):<br /><p><span style="color: rgb(215, 58, 73);">del</span> self._x</p><p><br /></p>46 查看对象类型
class type(name, bases, dict)
传入一个参数时，返回 object 的类型：
<span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>]: class <span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Student</span>():<br /> ...: <span style="color: rgb(215, 58, 73);">def</span> <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">__init__</span>(self,id,name):<br /> ...: self.id <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> id<br /> ...: self.name <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> name<br /> ...: def <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">__repr__</span>(self):<br /> ...: <span style="color: rgb(215, 58, 73);">return</span> <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'id = '</span><span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">+</span>self.id <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">+</span><span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">', name = '</span><span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">+</span>self.name<br /> ...:<br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">2</span>]: xiaoming <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> <span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Student</span>(id<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span><span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'001'</span>,name<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span><span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'xiaoming'</span>)<br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">3</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">type</span>(xiaoming)<br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Out</span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">3</span>]: __main__.<span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Student</span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">4</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">type</span>(<span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">tuple</span>())<br /><p><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Out</span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">4</span>]: tuple</p><p><br /></p>47 元类
xiaoming, xiaohong, xiaozhang 都是学生，这类群体叫做 Student.
Python 定义类的常见方法，使用关键字 class
<span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">36</span>]: class <span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Student</span>(object):<br /> ...: passxiaoming, xiaohong, xiaozhang 是类的实例，则：
xiaoming <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> <span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Student</span>()<br />xiaohong <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> <span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Student</span>()<br />xiaozhang <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> <span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Student</span>()创建后，xiaoming 的 __class__ 属性，返回的便是 Student类
<span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">38</span>]: xiaoming.__class__<br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Out</span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">38</span>]: __main__.<span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Student</span>问题在于，Student 类有 __class__属性，如果有，返回的又是什么？
<span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">39</span>]: xiaoming.__class__.__class__<br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Out</span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">39</span>]: type哇，程序没报错，返回 type
那么，我们不妨猜测：Student 类，类型就是 type
换句话说，Student类就是一个对象，它的类型就是 type
所以，Python 中一切皆对象，类也是对象
Python 中，将描述 Student 类的类被称为：元类。
按照此逻辑延伸，描述元类的类被称为：元元类，开玩笑了~ 描述元类的类也被称为元类。
聪明的朋友会问了，既然 Student 类可创建实例，那么 type 类可创建实例吗？如果能，它创建的实例就叫：类 了。你们真聪明！
说对了，type 类一定能创建实例，比如 Student 类了。
<span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">40</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Student</span> <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">type</span>(<span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'Student'</span>,(),{})<br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">41</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Student</span><br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Out</span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">41</span>]: __main__.<span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Student</span>它与使用 class 关键字创建的 Student 类一模一样。
Python 的类，因为又是对象，所以和 xiaoming，xiaohong 对象操作相似。支持：
-
赋值
-
拷贝
-
添加属性
-
作为函数参数
<span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">43</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">StudentMirror</span> <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> <span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Student</span> <span style="color: rgb(106, 115, 125);"># 类直接赋值 # 类直接赋值</span><br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">44</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Student</span>.class_property <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'class_property'</span> <span style="color: rgb(106, 115, 125);"># 添加类属性</span><br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">46</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">hasattr</span>(<span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Student</span>, <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'class_property'</span>)<br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Out</span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">46</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">True</span>元类，确实使用不是那么多，也许先了解这些，就能应付一些场合。就连 Python 界的领袖 Tim Peters 都说：
“元类就是深度的魔法，99%的用户应该根本不必为此操心。
六、工具
48 枚举对象
返回一个可以枚举的对象，该对象的next()方法将返回一个元组。
<span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>]: s <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> [<span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">"a"</span>,<span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">"b"</span>,<span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">"c"</span>]<br /> ...: for i ,v <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">in</span> <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">enumerate</span>(s,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>):<br /> ...: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">print</span>(i,v)<br /> ...:<br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span> a<br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">2</span> b<br /><p><span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">3</span> c</p><p><br /></p>49 查看变量所占字节数
<span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>]: import sys<br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">2</span>]: a <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> {<span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'a'</span>:<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>,<span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'b'</span>:<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">2.0</span>}<br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">3</span>]: sys.<span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">getsizeof</span>(a) <span style="color: rgb(106, 115, 125);"># 占用240个字节</span><br /><p><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Out</span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">3</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">240</span></p><p><span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);"><br /></span></p>50 过滤器
在函数中设定过滤条件，迭代元素，保留返回值为True的元素：
<span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>]: fil <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">filter</span>(<span style="color: rgb(215, 58, 73);">lambda</span> x: x<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">>10</span>,[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">11</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">2</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">45</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">7</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">6</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">13</span>])<br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">2</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">list</span>(fil)<br /><p><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Out</span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">2</span>]: [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">11</span>, <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">45</span>, <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">13</span>]</p><p><br /></p>51 返回对象的哈希值
返回对象的哈希值，值得注意的是自定义的实例都是可哈希的，list, dict, set等可变对象都是不可哈希的(unhashable)
<span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">hash</span>(xiaoming)<br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Out</span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">6139638</span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">2</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">hash</span>([<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">2</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">3</span>])<br /><p><span style="color: rgb(106, 115, 125);"># TypeError: unhashable type: 'list'</span></p><p><span style="color: rgb(106, 115, 125);"><br /></span></p>52 一键帮助
返回对象的帮助文档
<span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">help</span>(xiaoming)<br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Help</span> on <span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Student</span> <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">in</span> module __main__ object:<br /><br />class <span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Student</span>(builtins.object)<br /> <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">|</span> <span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Methods</span> defined here:<br /> <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">|</span><br /> <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">|</span> <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">__init__</span>(self, id, name)<br /> <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">|</span><br /> <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">|</span> <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">__repr__</span>(self)<br /> <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">|</span><br /> <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">|</span> <span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Data</span> descriptors defined here:<br /> <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">|</span><br /> <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">|</span> __dict__<br /> <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">|</span> dictionary <span style="color: rgb(215, 58, 73);">for</span> instance <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">variables</span> (if defined)<br /> <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">|</span><br /> <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">|</span> __weakref__<br /><p><span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">|</span> list of weak references to the <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">object</span> (if defined)</p><p><br /></p>53 获取用户输入
获取用户输入内容
<span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">input</span>()<br />aa<br /><p><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Out</span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'aa'</span></p><p><span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);"><br /></span></p>54 创建迭代器类型
使用iter(obj, sentinel), 返回一个可迭代对象, sentinel可省略(一旦迭代到此元素，立即终止)
<span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>]: lst <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">3</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">5</span>]<br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">2</span>]: for i <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">in</span> <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">iter</span>(lst):<br /> ...: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">print</span>(i)<br /> ...:<br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">3</span><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">5</span><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>]: class <span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">TestIter</span>(object):<br /> ...: <span style="color: rgb(215, 58, 73);">def</span> <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">__init__</span>(self):<br /> ...: self.l<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">3</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">2</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">3</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">4</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">5</span>]<br /> ...: self.i<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span><span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">iter</span>(self.l)<br /> ...: def <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">__call__</span>(self): <span style="color: rgb(106, 115, 125);">#定义了__call__方法的类的实例是可调用的</span><br /> ...: item <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">next</span>(self.i)<br /> ...: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">print</span> (<span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">"__call__ is called,fowhich would return"</span>,item)<br /> ...: return item<br /> ...: def <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">__iter__</span>(self): <span style="color: rgb(106, 115, 125);">#支持迭代协议(即定义有__iter__()函数)</span><br /> ...: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">print</span> (<span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">"__iter__ is called!!"</span>)<br /> ...: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">return</span> iter(self.l)<br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">2</span>]: t <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> <span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">TestIter</span>()<br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">3</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">t</span>() <span style="color: rgb(106, 115, 125);"># 因为实现了__call__，所以t实例能被调用</span><br />__call__ <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">is</span> called,which would <span style="color: rgb(215, 58, 73);">return</span> <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span><br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Out</span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">3</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">4</span>]: for e <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">in</span> <span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">TestIter</span>(): <span style="color: rgb(106, 115, 125);"># 因为实现了__iter__方法，所以t能被迭代</span><br /> ...: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">print</span>(e)<br /> ...:<br />__iter__ <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">is</span> called!!<br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">3</span><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">2</span><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">3</span><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">4</span><br /><p><span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">5</span></p><p><span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);"><br /></span></p>55 打开文件
返回文件对象
<span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>]: fo <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">open</span>(<span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'D:/a.txt'</span>,mode<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span><span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'r'</span>, encoding<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span><span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'utf-8'</span>)<br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">2</span>]: fo.<span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">read</span>()<br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Out</span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">2</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'ufefflife is not so long,nI use Python to play.'</span>mode取值表：
| 字符 | 意义 |
|---|---|
'r' |
读取（默认） |
'w' |
写入，并先截断文件 |
'x' |
排它性创建，如果文件已存在则失败 |
'a' |
写入，如果文件存在则在末尾追加 |
'b' |
二进制模式 |
't' |
文本模式（默认） |
'+' |
打开用于更新（读取与写入） |
56 创建range序列
-
range(stop)
-
range(start, stop[,step])
生成一个不可变序列：
<span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">range</span>(<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">11</span>)<br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Out</span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">range</span>(<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">0</span>, <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">11</span>)<br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">2</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">range</span>(<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">0</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">11</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>)<br /><p><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Out</span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">2</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">range</span>(<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">0</span>, <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">11</span>)</p><p><br /></p>57 反向迭代器
<span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>]: rev <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">reversed</span>([<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">4</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">2</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">3</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>])<br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">2</span>]: for i <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">in</span> rev:<br /> ...: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">print</span>(i)<br /> ...:<br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">3</span><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">2</span><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">4</span><br /><p><span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span></p><p><span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);"><br /></span></p>58 聚合迭代器
创建一个聚合了来自每个可迭代对象中的元素的迭代器：
<span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>]: x <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">3</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">2</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>]<br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">2</span>]: y <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">4</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">5</span>,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">6</span>]<br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">3</span>]: <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">list</span>(<span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">zip</span>(y,x))<br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Out</span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">3</span>]: [(<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">4</span>, <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">3</span>), (<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">5</span>, <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">2</span>), (<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">6</span>, <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>)]<br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">4</span>]: a <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">range</span>(<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">5</span>)<br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">5</span>]: b <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">list</span>(<span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'abcde'</span>)<br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">6</span>]: b<br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Out</span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">6</span>]: [<span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'a'</span>, <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'b'</span>, <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'c'</span>, <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'d'</span>, <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'e'</span>]<br /><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">In</span> [<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">7</span>]: [<span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">str</span>(y) <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">+</span> <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">str</span>(x) <span style="color: rgb(215, 58, 73);">for</span> x,y <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">in</span> <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">zip</span>(a,b)]<br /><p><span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Out</span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">7</span>]: [<span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'a0'</span>, <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'b1'</span>, <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'c2'</span>, <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'d3'</span>, <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'e4'</span>]</p><p><br /></p>59 链式操作
<span style="color: rgb(215, 58, 73);">from</span> operator <span style="color: rgb(215, 58, 73);">import</span> (add, sub)<br /><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(215, 58, 73);">def</span> <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">add_or_sub</span>(a, b, oper):<br /> <span style="color: rgb(215, 58, 73);">return</span> (add <span style="color: rgb(215, 58, 73);">if</span> oper <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">==</span> <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'+'</span> <span style="color: rgb(215, 58, 73);">else</span> sub)(a, b)<br /><br /><br /><p><span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">add_or_sub</span>(<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>, <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">2</span>, <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'-'</span>) <span style="color: rgb(106, 115, 125);"># -1</span></p><p><span style="color: rgb(106, 115, 125);"><br /></span></p>60 对象序列化
对象序列化，是指将内存中的对象转化为可存储或传输的过程。很多场景，直接一个类对象，传输不方便。
但是，当对象序列化后，就会更加方便，因为约定俗成的，接口间的调用或者发起的 web 请求，一般使用 json 串传输。
实际使用中，一般对类对象序列化。先创建一个 Student 类型，并创建两个实例。
<span style="color: rgb(215, 58, 73);">class</span> <span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Student</span>():<br /> <span style="color: rgb(215, 58, 73);">def</span> <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">__init__</span>(self,<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">**</span>args):<br /> self.ids <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> args[<span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'ids'</span>]<br /> self.name <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> args[<span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'name'</span>]<br /> self.address <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> args[<span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'address'</span>]<br />xiaoming <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> <span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Student</span>(ids <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>,name <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'xiaoming'</span>,address <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'北京'</span>)<br />xiaohong <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> <span style="color: rgb(227, 98, 9);">Student</span>(ids <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">2</span>,name <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'xiaohong'</span>,address <span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span> <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'南京'</span>)导入 json 模块，调用 dump 方法，就会将列表对象 [xiaoming,xiaohong]，序列化到文件 json.txt 中。
<span style="color: rgb(215, 58, 73);">import</span> json<br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(215, 58, 73);">with</span> <span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">open</span>(<span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'json.txt'</span>, <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">'w'</span>) <span style="color: rgb(215, 58, 73);">as</span> f:<br /> json.<span style="color: rgb(111, 66, 193);">dump</span>([xiaoming,xiaohong], f, default<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=</span><span style="color: rgb(215, 58, 73);">lambda</span> obj: obj.__dict__, ensure_ascii<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=False</span>, indent<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=2</span>, sort_keys<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">=True</span>)生成的文件内容，如下：
[<br /> {<br /> <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">"address"</span>:<span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">"北京"</span>,<br /> <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">"ids"</span>:<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">1</span>,<br /> <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">"name"</span>:<span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">"xiaoming"</span><br /> },<br /> {<br /> <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">"address"</span>:<span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">"南京"</span>,<br /> <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">"ids"</span>:<span style="color: rgb(0, 92, 197);">2</span>,<br /> <span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">"name"</span>:<span style="color: rgb(3, 47, 98);">"xiaohong"</span><br /> }<br />]<section style="letter-spacing: 0px;white-space: normal;color: rgb(0, 0, 0);text-align: left;font-family: Optima-Regular, Optima, PingFangSC-light, PingFangTC-light, "PingFang SC", Cambria, Cochin, Georgia, Times, "Times New Roman", serif;line-height: 1.5em;"><br /></section><p><br /></p><section 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36)" data-darkmode-original-bgcolor-15882396318564="rgb(255, 255, 255)" data-darkmode-color-15882396318564="rgb(230, 230, 230)" data-darkmode-original-color-15882396318564="rgb(0, 0, 0)" data-darkmode-bgcolor-15900529136199="rgb(36, 36, 36)" data-darkmode-original-bgcolor-15900529136199="rgb(255, 255, 255)" data-darkmode-color-15900529136199="rgb(230, 230, 230)" data-darkmode-original-color-15900529136199="rgb(0, 0, 0)" style="max-width: 100%;letter-spacing: 0.544px;border-width: 0px;border-style: none;border-color: initial;box-sizing: border-box !important;overflow-wrap: break-word !important;"><section data-darkmode-bgcolor-15860613985508="rgb(36, 36, 36)" data-darkmode-original-bgcolor-15860613985508="rgb(255, 255, 255)" data-darkmode-color-15860613985508="rgb(230, 230, 230)" data-darkmode-original-color-15860613985508="rgb(0, 0, 0)" data-darkmode-bgcolor-15870356070738="rgb(36, 36, 36)" data-darkmode-original-bgcolor-15870356070738="rgb(255, 255, 255)" 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230)" data-darkmode-original-color-15900529136199="rgb(0, 0, 0)" style="max-width: 100%;display: inline-block;clear: both;box-sizing: border-box !important;overflow-wrap: break-word !important;"><section data-brushtype="text" data-darkmode-bgcolor-15860613985508="rgb(36, 36, 36)" data-darkmode-original-bgcolor-15860613985508="rgb(255, 255, 255)" data-darkmode-color-15860613985508="rgb(230, 230, 230)" data-darkmode-original-color-15860613985508="rgb(0, 0, 0)" data-darkmode-bgimage-15860613985508="1" data-style="padding: 18px 15px 20px 10px; color: rgb(86, 146, 214); text-align: center; letter-spacing: 1.5px; background-image: url('https://www.zkxjob.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/07/wxsync-2022-07-a2a8a5e1e58f30392066a170034ee027.png'); background-size: 100% 100%; background-repeat: no-repeat; overflow-wrap: break-word !important;" data-darkmode-bgcolor-15870356070738="rgb(36, 36, 36)" data-darkmode-original-bgcolor-15870356070738="rgb(255, 255, 255)" 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data-darkmode-bgcolor-15900529136199="rgb(36, 36, 36)" data-darkmode-original-bgcolor-15900529136199="rgb(255, 255, 255)" data-darkmode-color-15900529136199="rgb(230, 230, 230)" data-darkmode-original-color-15900529136199="rgb(0, 0, 0)" data-darkmode-bgimage-15900529136199="1" style="padding: 18px 15px 20px 10px;max-width: 100%;background-size: 100% 100%;background-image: url('https://www.zkxjob.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/07/wxsync-2022-07-a2a8a5e1e58f30392066a170034ee027.png');color: rgb(86, 146, 214);letter-spacing: 1.5px;background-repeat: no-repeat;box-sizing: border-box !important;overflow-wrap: break-word !important;"><section data-darkmode-bgcolor-15860613985508="rgb(36, 36, 36)" data-darkmode-original-bgcolor-15860613985508="rgb(255, 255, 255)" data-darkmode-color-15860613985508="rgb(230, 230, 230)" data-darkmode-original-color-15860613985508="rgb(0, 0, 0)" data-darkmode-bgimage-15860613985508="1" data-darkmode-bgcolor-15870356070738="rgb(36, 36, 36)" 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data-darkmode-original-color-15882396318564="rgb(0, 0, 0)" data-darkmode-bgimage-15882396318564="1" data-darkmode-bgcolor-15900529136199="rgb(36, 36, 36)" data-darkmode-original-bgcolor-15900529136199="rgb(255, 255, 255)" data-darkmode-color-15900529136199="rgb(230, 230, 230)" data-darkmode-original-color-15900529136199="rgb(0, 0, 0)" data-darkmode-bgimage-15900529136199="1" style="max-width: 100%;display: flex;justify-content: center;align-items: center;box-sizing: border-box !important;overflow-wrap: break-word !important;"><section data-darkmode-bgcolor-15860613985508="rgb(36, 36, 36)" data-darkmode-original-bgcolor-15860613985508="rgb(255, 255, 255)" data-darkmode-color-15860613985508="rgb(230, 230, 230)" data-darkmode-original-color-15860613985508="rgb(0, 0, 0)" data-darkmode-bgimage-15860613985508="1" data-darkmode-bgcolor-15870356070738="rgb(36, 36, 36)" data-darkmode-original-bgcolor-15870356070738="rgb(255, 255, 255)" data-darkmode-color-15870356070738="rgb(230, 230, 230)" data-darkmode-original-color-15870356070738="rgb(0, 0, 0)" data-darkmode-bgimage-15870356070738="1" data-darkmode-bgcolor-15870356071023="rgb(36, 36, 36)" data-darkmode-original-bgcolor-15870356071023="rgb(255, 255, 255)" data-darkmode-color-15870356071023="rgb(230, 230, 230)" data-darkmode-original-color-15870356071023="rgb(0, 0, 0)" data-darkmode-bgimage-15870356071023="1" data-darkmode-bgcolor-15882384789136="rgb(36, 36, 36)" data-darkmode-original-bgcolor-15882384789136="rgb(255, 255, 255)" data-darkmode-color-15882384789136="rgb(230, 230, 230)" data-darkmode-original-color-15882384789136="rgb(0, 0, 0)" data-darkmode-bgimage-15882384789136="1" data-darkmode-bgcolor-15882396318564="rgb(36, 36, 36)" data-darkmode-original-bgcolor-15882396318564="rgb(255, 255, 255)" data-darkmode-color-15882396318564="rgb(230, 230, 230)" data-darkmode-original-color-15882396318564="rgb(0, 0, 0)" data-darkmode-bgimage-15882396318564="1" data-darkmode-bgcolor-15900529136199="rgb(36, 36, 36)" data-darkmode-original-bgcolor-15900529136199="rgb(255, 255, 255)" data-darkmode-color-15900529136199="rgb(230, 230, 230)" data-darkmode-original-color-15900529136199="rgb(0, 0, 0)" data-darkmode-bgimage-15900529136199="1" style="margin-left: 2px;max-width: 100%;width: 20px;box-sizing: border-box !important;overflow-wrap: break-word !important;"></section><section data-brushtype="text" data-darkmode-bgcolor-15860613985508="rgb(36, 36, 36)" data-darkmode-original-bgcolor-15860613985508="rgb(255, 255, 255)" data-darkmode-color-15860613985508="rgb(51, 51, 51)" data-darkmode-original-color-15860613985508="rgb(51, 51, 51)" data-darkmode-bgimage-15860613985508="1" data-darkmode-bgcolor-15870356070738="rgb(36, 36, 36)" data-darkmode-original-bgcolor-15870356070738="rgb(255, 255, 255)" data-darkmode-color-15870356070738="rgb(51, 51, 51)" data-darkmode-original-color-15870356070738="rgb(51, 51, 51)" data-darkmode-bgimage-15870356070738="1" data-darkmode-bgcolor-15870356071023="rgb(36, 36, 36)" data-darkmode-original-bgcolor-15870356071023="rgb(255, 255, 255)" data-darkmode-color-15870356071023="rgb(51, 51, 51)" data-darkmode-original-color-15870356071023="rgb(51, 51, 51)" data-darkmode-bgimage-15870356071023="1" data-darkmode-bgcolor-15882384789136="rgb(36, 36, 36)" data-darkmode-original-bgcolor-15882384789136="rgb(255, 255, 255)" data-darkmode-color-15882384789136="rgb(51, 51, 51)" data-darkmode-original-color-15882384789136="rgb(51, 51, 51)" data-darkmode-bgimage-15882384789136="1" data-darkmode-bgcolor-15882396318564="rgb(36, 36, 36)" data-darkmode-original-bgcolor-15882396318564="rgb(255, 255, 255)" data-darkmode-color-15882396318564="rgb(51, 51, 51)" data-darkmode-original-color-15882396318564="rgb(51, 51, 51)" data-darkmode-bgimage-15882396318564="1" data-darkmode-bgcolor-15900529136199="rgb(36, 36, 36)" data-darkmode-original-bgcolor-15900529136199="rgb(255, 255, 255)" data-darkmode-color-15900529136199="rgb(51, 51, 51)" data-darkmode-original-color-15900529136199="rgb(51, 51, 51)" data-darkmode-bgimage-15900529136199="1" style="max-width: 100%;font-size: 14px;color: rgb(51, 51, 51);text-align: left;box-sizing: border-box !important;overflow-wrap: break-word !important;"><span style="max-width: 100%;font-family: 楷体, 楷体_GB2312, SimKai;white-space: pre-wrap;font-size: 12px;box-sizing: border-box !important;overflow-wrap: break-word !important;">点阅读原文,领星球优惠卷！</span></section></section></section></section></section></section></section>本篇文章来源于: 菜鸟学Python
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